2005 (8) TMI 614 - SC - Indian Laws

Education is occupation and service to society but not trade or business activity

PA Inamdar and others Versus State of Maharashtra and others

The SC held that education constitutes an occupation and service to society but cannot be equated to trade or business. The court recognized education as ... Constitutional rights and regulatory framework governing private unaided professional educational institutions, both minority and non-minority, in India - Scope and interpretation of Article 30(1) of the Constitution - meaning of the expression 'minorities' - Whether, to receive education, is a fundamental right or not - observations and certain findings in Pai Foundation [2002 (10) TMI 739 - SUPREME COURT] - HELD THAT:- Capitation fee cannot be permitted to be charged and no seat can be permitted to be appropriated by payment of capitation fee. 'Profession' has to be distinguished from 'business' or a mere 'occupation'. While in business, and to a certain extent in occupation, there is a profit motive, profession is primarily a service to society wherein earning is secondary or incidental. Despite the legal position, this Court cannot shut its eyes to the hard realities of commercialization of education and evil practices being adopted by many institutions to earn large amounts for their private or selfish ends. If capitation fee and profiteering is to be checked, the method of admission has to be regulated so that the admissions are based on merit and transparency and the students are not exploited. It is permissible to regulate admission and fee structure for achieving the purpose just stated. Our answer to Question-3 is that every institution is free to devise its own fee structure but the same can be regulated in the interest of preventing profiteering. No capitation fee can be charged. In our considered view, on the basis of judgment in Pai Foundation and various previous judgments of this Court which have been taken into consideration in that case, the scheme evolved of setting up the two Committees for regulating admissions and determining fee structure by the judgment in Islamic Academy cannot be faulted either on the ground of alleged infringement of Article 19(1)(g) in case of unaided professional educational institutions of both categories and Article 19(1)(g) read with Article 30 in case of unaided professional institutions of minorities. We make it clear that in case of any individual institution, if any of the Committees is found to have exceeded its powers by unduly interfering in the administrative and financial matters of the unaided private professional institutions, the decision of the Committee being quasi-judicial in nature, would always be subject to judicial review. On Question-4, our conclusion, therefore, is that the judgment in Islamic Academy, in so far as it evolves the scheme of two Committees, one each for admission and fee structure, does not go beyond the law laid down in Pai Foundation and earlier decisions of this Court, which have been approved in that case. The challenge to setting up of two Committees in accordance with the decision in Islamic Academy, therefore, fails. However, the observation by way clarification, contained in the later part of para 19 of Islamic Academy which speaks of quota and fixation of percentage by State Government is rendered redundant and must go in view of what has been already held by us in the earlier part of this judgment while dealing with Question No.1. We have answered the four questions formulated by us in the manner indicated hereinabove. All other issues which we leave untouched, may be dealt with by the regular Benches which will take up individual cases for decision. Epilogue - We have placed on record in the earlier part of this judgment and, yet, before parting we would like to reiterate, that certain recitals, certain observations and certain findings in Pai Foundation are contradictory inter se and such conflict can only be resolved by a Bench of a coram larger than Pai Foundation. There are several questions which have remained unanswered and there are certain questions which have propped up post Pai Foundation and Islamic Academy. To the extent the area is left open, the Benches hearing individual cases after this judgment would find the answers. Issues referable to those areas which are already covered by Pai Foundation and yet open to question shall have to be answered by a Bench of a larger coram than Pai Foundation. We leave those issues to be taken care of by posterity. We are also conscious of the fact that admission process in several professional educational institutions has already commenced. Some admissions have been made or are in the process of being made in consonance with the schemes and procedures as approved by Committees and in some cases pursuant to interim directions made by this Court or by the High Courts. This judgment shall not have the effect of disturbing the admissions already made or with regard to which the process has already commenced. The law, as laid down in this judgment, shall be given effect to from the academic year commencing next after the pronouncement of this judgment. It is for the Central Government, or for the State Governments, in the absence of a Central legislation, to come out with a detailed well thought out legislation on the subject. Such a legislation is long awaited. States must act towards this direction. Judicial wing of the State is called upon to act when the other two wings, the Legislature and the Executive, do not act. Earlier the Union of India and the State Governments act, the better it would be. The Committees regulating admission procedure and fee structure shall continue to exist, but only as a temporary measure and an inevitable passing phase until the Central Government or the State Governments are able to devise a suitable mechanism and appoint competent authority in consonance with the observations made hereinabove. Needless to say, any decision taken by such Committees and by the Central or the State Governments, shall be open to judicial review in accordance with the settled parameters for the exercise of such jurisdiction. Before parting, we would like to place on record our appreciation of the valuable assistance rendered by all the learned senior counsel and other counsel appearing in the case and who have addressed us, highlighting very many aspects of the ticklish issues in the field of professional education which have propped up for decision in the light of the 11-Judge Bench decision in Pai Foundation and Constitution Bench decision in Islamic Academy. But for their assistance, the issues would have defied resolution. All the petitions, Civil Appeals and IAs shall now be listed before appropriate Benches for hearing. 1. ISSUES PRESENTED and CONSIDEREDThe core legal questions considered by the Court in this judgment revolve around the constitutional rights and regulatory framework governing private unaided professional educational institutions, both minority and non-minority, in India. Specifically, the issues are:(i) To what extent can the State regulate admissions in unaided private professional educational institutionsRs. Can the State appropriate any quota of admissions or enforce its reservation policy in such institutionsRs.(ii) Whether unaided minority and non-minority educational institutions are free to devise their own admission procedures, or whether the directions in Islamic Academy mandating common entrance tests conducted by the State or associations of institutions are sustainable in light of the law laid down in Pai Foundation.(iii) Whether the fee structure in such unaided institutions can be regulated by the State or by Committees constituted under the Islamic Academy judgment.(iv) Whether the Committees formed pursuant to the Islamic Academy judgment, tasked with regulating admissions and fee structures, are constitutionally valid and consistent with the law laid down in Pai Foundation.These issues are primarily referable to the questions and headings formulated in the 11-Judge Bench judgment in Pai Foundation and further clarified in the Constitution Bench judgment in Islamic Academy.2. ISSUE-WISE DETAILED ANALYSISIssue 1: Regulation of Admissions and Appropriation of Quota by the StateLegal Framework and Precedents: Article 19(1)(g) guarantees the fundamental right to carry on any occupation, trade or business, which includes establishing and administering educational institutions. Article 30(1) provides special protection to religious and linguistic minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. The 11-Judge Bench in Pai Foundation extensively discussed these rights, holding that minority status is to be determined State-wise. Kerala Education Bill (1957) classified minority educational institutions into three categories-unaided and unrecognized, unaided seeking recognition or affiliation, and aided institutions-and laid down principles of regulation applicable to each.Court's Interpretation and Reasoning: The Court reaffirmed that unaided private professional educational institutions, whether minority or non-minority, enjoy autonomy in admissions and administration. The State cannot appropriate seats or enforce its reservation policy in such institutions, as that would amount to nationalization, which was specifically disapproved in Pai Foundation. The Court emphasized that admissions must be based on merit and transparency without State-imposed quotas or reservations in unaided institutions. Observations in paragraph 68 of Pai Foundation, which mention possible seat sharing, were held to be illustrative and permissive only if consensually agreed, not mandatory or enforceable by the State.Key Evidence and Findings: The Court noted the practical difficulties and litigations arising from State attempts to impose quotas and reservation policies on unaided institutions. It found no justification in the law for such impositions and held that such State action violates the autonomy guaranteed under Articles 19(1)(g) and 30(1).Application of Law to Facts: The Court invalidated State attempts to fix quotas or enforce reservation policies in unaided minority and non-minority professional institutions. It held that admissions must be merit-based and free from State appropriation of seats.Treatment of Competing Arguments: While States argued that such regulation is necessary to ensure access to weaker sections and maintain fairness, the Court balanced this against constitutional guarantees of autonomy and held that voluntary arrangements or scholarships/free-ships by institutions are permissible, but compulsory quota imposition by the State is unconstitutional.Conclusion: The State cannot appropriate any quota or enforce reservation policies in unaided private professional educational institutions. Admissions must be merit-based, transparent, and free from State-imposed seat sharing.Issue 2: Admission Procedures and Common Entrance TestsLegal Framework and Precedents: Pai Foundation recognized the right of private unaided institutions to administer admissions subject to transparency and merit. Islamic Academy directed holding common entrance tests (CET) conducted by the State or associations of institutions for professional courses to ensure merit and prevent exploitation.Court's Interpretation and Reasoning: The Court held that while minority unaided institutions have the right to admit students of their choice, this right is subject to the requirement of fairness, transparency, and merit. Common entrance tests are permissible and desirable to avoid harassment and multiple tests for candidates, ensure merit-based admissions, and prevent malpractices. The Court clarified that CET or a similar credible agency-based system does not infringe on the right of minority institutions to choose students from the successful candidates, preserving their autonomy within the merit framework.Key Evidence and Findings: The Court acknowledged the practical difficulties faced by students in appearing for multiple admission tests and the potential for exploitation without a common system. It also noted that minority institutions can admit students of their choice from the CET merit list.Application of Law to Facts: The Court upheld the direction for CET as a reasonable regulatory measure consistent with constitutional rights, ensuring merit and transparency without destroying institutional autonomy.Treatment of Competing Arguments: Petitioners contended that CET infringes on autonomy, but the Court balanced this with the public interest in merit and transparency, holding that CET is a permissible reasonable restriction.Conclusion: Unaided minority and non-minority professional educational institutions may be required to admit students through a common entrance test conducted by a credible agency, preserving merit and transparency, without impairing their constitutional rights.Issue 3: Regulation of Fee StructureLegal Framework and Precedents: Article 30(1) includes the right to establish a reasonable fee structure. Pai Foundation and Islamic Academy prohibit charging capitation fees or profiteering but allow reasonable surplus for expansion and improvement. The Unni Krishnan scheme for fee fixation was overruled by Pai Foundation as amounting to nationalization.Court's Interpretation and Reasoning: The Court held that institutions are free to fix their own fees subject to the prohibition of capitation fee and profiteering. Regulatory oversight is permissible to prevent exploitation and ensure fees are reasonable, covering operational costs and reasonable surplus for growth. Committees constituted under Islamic Academy to scrutinize and approve fee structures were held to be valid regulatory mechanisms, provided they act reasonably and sensitively.Key Evidence and Findings: The Court noted instances where committees fixed fees at unviable levels, causing operational difficulties. It cautioned committees to act rationally and consider individual institutional circumstances.Application of Law to Facts: The Court validated the regulatory role of committees in fee fixation as a reasonable restriction in public interest but emphasized that such committees must not usurp institutional autonomy or impose uniform fees without regard to individual realities.Treatment of Competing Arguments: Petitioners argued that fee fixation committees infringe autonomy and amount to nationalization. The Court acknowledged autonomy but balanced it with the need to prevent commercialization and exploitation.Conclusion: Institutions have the right to fix fees subject to regulation preventing capitation fees and profiteering. Committees regulating fee structures are constitutionally permissible as reasonable restrictions, provided they act judiciously.Issue 4: Validity and Scope of Committees Formed Under Islamic AcademyLegal Framework and Precedents: Pai Foundation struck down the Unni Krishnan scheme for permanent committees fixing admission and fees as unconstitutional. Islamic Academy reintroduced committees for regulating admissions and fees as temporary measures under Article 142 of the Constitution.Court's Interpretation and Reasoning: The Court held that the committees constituted under Islamic Academy are valid regulatory mechanisms aimed at ensuring transparency, merit, and preventing exploitation. These committees are temporary stopgap arrangements until appropriate legislation is enacted. The Court clarified that these committees do not amount to nationalization or total State control but are reasonable restrictions consistent with Articles 19(6) and 30(1). The Court cautioned committees against overreach and emphasized judicial review of their decisions.Key Evidence and Findings: The Court noted criticisms of some committees for arbitrary fee fixation and excessive interference but reaffirmed their constitutional validity while urging restraint and rationality.Application of Law to Facts: The Court upheld the committees as a necessary interim regulatory mechanism to curb malpractices, maintain standards, and protect student interests, pending legislative action.Treatment of Competing Arguments: Petitioners contended that committees infringe autonomy and replicate the unconstitutional Unni Krishnan scheme. The Court distinguished Islamic Academy committees as temporary, limited, and subject to judicial review, unlike the permanent Unni Krishnan committees.Conclusion: The committees formed under Islamic Academy for regulating admissions and fee structures are constitutionally valid as temporary regulatory measures, subject to judicial review and acting within prescribed limits.3. SIGNIFICANT HOLDINGS'The State cannot insist on private educational institutions which receive no aid from the State to implement State's policy on reservation for granting admission on any criterion except merit. Such imposition would amount to nationalization of seats which has been specifically disapproved in Pai Foundation.' (Para 122)'Observations in paragraph 68 of Pai Foundation, which mention possible seat sharing, are to be read as possible consensual arrangements and not as mandatory or enforceable State prescriptions.' (Para 125)'Holding of a common entrance test followed by centralized counseling does not cause any dent in the right of minority unaided educational institutions to admit students of their choice. Such choice can be exercised from out of the list of successful candidates prepared at the CET without altering the order of merit inter se of the students so chosen.' (Para 133)'Every institution is free to devise its own fee structure but the same can be regulated in the interest of preventing profiteering. No capitation fee can be charged.' (Para 138)'The scheme evolved of setting up the two Committees for regulating admissions and determining fee structure by the judgment in Islamic Academy does not go beyond the law laid down in Pai Foundation and earlier decisions of this Court.' (Para 144)'Such Committees cannot be equated with Unni Krishnan Committees which were supposed to be permanent in nature. They are temporary stopgap arrangements until suitable legislation is enacted.' (Para 145)'The Committees should refrain from generalizing fee structures and should go into accounts, schemes, and budgets of individual institutions to find out reasonable fee structures.' (Para 146)'The right to establish and administer educational institutions is guaranteed under Articles 19(1)(g) and 30(1) of the Constitution, subject to reasonable restrictions for maintaining merit, transparency, and preventing mal-administration.' (Para 13, summarized)'Minority status is to be determined by reference to the demography of the State and not by the population of the country as a whole.' (Para 98)'Minority educational institutions must primarily cater to the requirements of the minority community of the State where they are located; otherwise, they lose their minority character and protection under Article 30(1).' (Para 104)